@@ -90,7 +90,7 @@ A fallacy of relevance is one where the premises are totally irrelevant to the c
_The Petroleum Association thinks climate change is a hoax. Therefore we can stop worrying about climate change._
10.**Appeal to ignorance** -- a definitive argument made based on the idea that nothing has been proved one way or another.
10.**Appeal to ignorance** -- a definitive argument made based on the idea that nothing has been proved one way or another.
_They keep changing their minds on which foods are healthy or unhealthy. Clearly no one really knows. So I'm just going to keep eating junk food._
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Not all appeals to ignorance are a fallacy, however. Our justice system operates on the idea that a defendant is innocent until proven guilty. Therefore obtaining a "not guilty" verdict amounts to showing that no evidence came to light that would implicate the defendant. This is a safeguard intended to give defendants the benefit of the doubt. It does not logically mean the defendant did not commit the crimes he was on trial for.
11.**Hasty generalization** -- when the sampling used to obtain an inductive generalization is insufficient.
11.**Hasty generalization** -- when the sampling used to obtain an inductive generalization is insufficient.
_Silicon Valley Bank, First Republic, and Signature Bank all collapsed recently. Therefore banks are unsafe places to keep your money and you should stop using them._
_Every time I go out in the cold I get sick. Therefore cold temperatures are making me sick._
12.**False Cause** -- argument based on an imagined causal connection that probably does not exist.
12.**False Cause** -- argument based on an imagined causal connection that probably does not exist.
_Successful executives are paid in excess of a million dollars. Therefore, to ensure that our CEO is successful we should raise his salary to at least a million dollars._
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_Death by drowning correlates with the sale of ice cream. So let's start regulating the sale of ice cream._
13.**Slippery slope** -- when the argument rests on an alleged chain reaction when such is unlikely.
13.**Slippery slope** -- when the argument rests on an alleged chain reaction when such is unlikely.
_If we legalize marijuana, then cocaine and heroin will follow and more people will start using them. Soon our children will be addicted to heroin._
_If the court rules to outlaw pornography, it will quickly be followed by outlawing all forms of entertainment._
14.**Weak Analogy** -- when an analogy is not strong enough to support the conclusions drawn.
14.**Weak Analogy** -- when an analogy is not strong enough to support the conclusions drawn.
_Donald Trump and Joe Biden are similar in many ways. They are both old white men. They are both politicians. They both play golf. Biden likes to bike. So Trump should like biking too._
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@@ -135,7 +135,7 @@ A fallacy of relevance is one where the premises are totally irrelevant to the c
Fallacies of presumption have premises that themselves contain what they purport to prove. Fallacies of ambiguity contain differences in interpretation of content in the premises or conclusion. Fallacies of grammatical analogy are bad arguments that have the same grammatical structure as good arguments.
15.**Begging the question** -- when a key premise, probably false, is left out, creating the impression that the remaining premises support the conclusion. This can also manifest as a shaky premise being restated as the conclusion, or a circular argument.
15.**Begging the question** -- when a key premise, probably false, is left out, creating the impression that the remaining premises support the conclusion. This can also manifest as a shaky premise being restated as the conclusion, or a circular argument.
**Leaving out a premise:**
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@@ -155,7 +155,7 @@ A fallacy of relevance is one where the premises are totally irrelevant to the c
_Sam is a great leader because he does great things for the right reasons. He created a high speed train network. He started a program to colonize Mars. He defeated a terrible dictator in war. He did these things because he's a great leader._
16.**Complex question** -- when two or more questions are posed as a single question and a single answer is given to them. The answer implies culpability or acquiesence to all the questions:
16.**Complex question** -- when two or more questions are posed as a single question and a single answer is given to them. The answer implies culpability or acquiesence to all the questions:
_Have you stopped lying to the IRS?_
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_Either you buy American or you are not a loyal American. Yesterday you bought a new Nissan. Therefore you are not a loyal American._
17.**Suppressed evidence** -- not mentioning evidence that could lead to a much different conclusion.
17.**Suppressed evidence** -- not mentioning evidence that could lead to a much different conclusion.
_Herbal supplements are almost always safe. Therefore just go ahead and take the ones you need._
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@@ -174,7 +174,7 @@ A fallacy of relevance is one where the premises are totally irrelevant to the c
_There is no consensus on the age of the Earth because, on one hand, geologists say it is billions of years old and on the other biblical scholars say it is only thousands of years old._
18.**Equivocation** -- When a word (or phrase) is used in two different senses and an improper conclusion is drawn as a result.
18.**Equivocation** -- When a word (or phrase) is used in two different senses and an improper conclusion is drawn as a result.
_The constitution gives us the right to bear arms. Therefore I can carry my AR-15 to class with me everyday._
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_We have a duty to do what is right. We have a right to consume alcohol. Therefore we have a duty to consume alcohol._
19.**Amphiboly** -- an ambiguity arising from punctuation or grammar leading to the wrong conclusion.
19.**Amphiboly** -- an ambiguity arising from punctuation or grammar leading to the wrong conclusion.
_Oscar Pistorius shot his girlfriend in the bathroom._
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_Trump, in his will, is leaving Mar a Lago to Don Jr., Trump tower to Eric, and Bedminster golf course to Ivanka._
20.**Composition** -- the erroneous conclusion that if the parts have an attribute, then the whole has the same attribute.
20.**Composition** -- the erroneous conclusion that if the parts have an attribute, then the whole has the same attribute.
_Desirable economic growth results when there is low unemployment and low inflation. Therefore we want low economic growth._
